Coherence

Book Review: Coherence

By Michael Fullan & Joanne Quinn

In the opening chapter of Coherence, authors Michael Fullan and Joanne Quinn define coherence as follows: “the shared depth of understanding about the purpose and nature of the work”. (1) When everyone in the school or district can “talk the walk”, that is, when everyone can articulate the key ideas and actions that define an organization, then coherence is achieved. (2)

In Chapter 1, they also identify the 4 elements of their Coherence Framework: focusing direction, cultivating collaborative cultures, deepening learning, and securing accountability.  Their “big message” pertaining to these drivers though is that “they go together and must be addressed simultaneously and continuously”. (11)

The first component of the Coherence Framework, focusing direction, is the topic of Chapter 2.  It has 4 dimensions.  First, there must be moral purpose, “a deep, relentless purpose”. (18)  Secondly, the goals must have impact.  The main threat to impactful goals is “the presence of too many … ad hoc, unconnected, and ever-changing” goals and initiatives. (19)  The authors recommend a 4-step approach to avoid such initiativitis.   School district leaders must be transparent by acknowledging and gaining clarity on the issues at hand.  Next, they need to build a common language and use a collaborative approach.  They also should employ a reduce, reframe, and remove strategy:

·         Reduce the clutter and overload of initiatives by identifying 2 or 3 key goals or an “umbrella focus” (22);

·         Reframe the connections between goals to avoid fragmentation;

·         Remove distractors – by  identifying “time wasters and inefficiencies”, giving   principals and leaders permission to say no, and avoiding “shiny objects and alluring  possibilities” (23).

 Lastly, district leaders should cultivate engagement by communicating often and listening even more often.

The third aspect of focusing direction is clarity of the strategy.  When explicitness of the ideas is lacking, the result will be inertia or superficial activity; however, if there is clarity about the plan, effective action and innovation are possible.

The last element of focusing direction is change leadership.  Fullan and Quinn use a metaphor of 2 fishbowls to describe the challenges of moving districts, schools, and individual teachers in the direction of innovation.  To successfully jump from one bowl to the other, a fish requires both competence and confidence.  Likewise, district leaders need to build the capacity of principals and teachers to take the leap in the direction of innovation, and they should celebrate the successful leaps forward by early adopters in order to encourage less confident and more reluctant staff to also move forward.   The authors recommend that leaders consider the following research-informed practices for successful change initiatives:

·         Participate as a co-learner;

·         Encourage leadership from the middle, and recognize that “shifting practices” can come        from all levels of the organization (30);

·         Balance push and pull strategies;

·         Create “safe places for risk taking” (31); and,

·         Build capacity in every way possible

The Coherence Framework

Quinn & Fullan on Coherence

In Chapter 3, Fullan and Quinn explain 4 elements of cultivating collaborative cultures, the second coherence factor.  The first element is a growth mindset that is reflected both in policy decisions and strategy.  For instance, rather than recruiting talent and looking for solutions from outside the organization, school district leaders should concentrate on “… leadership development strategies that grow internal capacity.” (50)   The second element is learning leadership that models a culture of continuous learning through direct participation in professional learning and creates and supports learning situations that promote “… inquiry habits of mind throughout the school.” (55)

The authors refer to the findings of John Hattie in support of the 3^rd aspect they identify – collaborative capacity building.  According to Hattie, “collective efficacy” has the highest effect size (1.57) on student learning of any single factor.   The authors elaborate by noting that “The key to a capacity building approach lies in developing a common knowledge and skill base across all leaders and educators in the system.” (57)  The 3 key features of collaborative capacity building are learning partnerships within schools and across the system, sustained focus over multiple sessions, and iterative learning cycles.  

The final element is quality collaborative work.  The following important caution is given by the authors: “Groups are powerful, which means they can be powerfully wrong.” (13)  Their meaning is that frustration, and at the best, only surface learning will result from PLCs and other team work unless there is effective learning design. (ie. clear and measurable goals, well established group norms, and effective protocols, such as critical friends, for inquiry) 

For the 3^rd driver for achieving coherence, deepening learning, Fullan and Quinn identify 3 elements.  Clarity of deep learning goals is the first element.  School district leaders should ask the following question to determine what the goals should be: “What are the two or three things that will most improve student learning?” (80-81)  The authors add that, in determining goals, district leaders should be wary of confusing strategies with purposes.  When it comes to digital technologies, they need to recognize that “pedagogy is the driver and digital is the accelerator to go faster and deeper into learning.” (81)   The authors then identify the 6 Cs as the key to deep learning goals:

·         Communication – multimodal and designed for different audiences;

·         Critical Thinking – including making connections, problem solving, and evaluating        
      information and arguments;

·         Collaboration – interpersonal and team dynamics skills;

·         Creativity – entrepreneurialism and pursuing novel ideas and solutions;

·         Character – grit, resiliency, tenacity, responsibility, and empathy; and,

·         Citizenship – interest in human and environmental sustainability.

The 2^nd element for deepening learning is precision in pedagogy, which is achieved across a school district by constructing a common language and knowledge base, identifying research-informed learning strategies, targeting capacity building, and establishing clear links between learning and assessment.

As a part of the focus on pedagogy, Fullan and Quinn introduce 3 strands of the New Pedagogies for Deep Learning (NPDL) model.  The first of these is pedagogical partnerships.  Although they also advocate for partnerships with families, the authors stress, in particular, a student learning model that represents a more intimate partnership between teachers and students such that students are agents who co-design learning and assessment tasks.  In this model, student aspirations and interests help shape instruction, and positive student expectations are constantly reinforced.   The second strand is a highly engaging learning environment that fosters risk taking, innovation, differentiation, and authentic inquiry learning.  The last aspect is effective leveraging of digital technologies such that they augment and transform learning rather than just serve as expensive substitutions (“$1,000 pencils”) for traditional technologies. (98)

The 3^rd and final element for deepening learning is shifting teacher practices through capacity building.  The process for this involves assessing current teacher capacity and planning professional learning accordingly.

The final driver to bring about coherence is securing accountability.  However, Fullan and Quinn do not believe that external accountability is the answer.  For one thing, they note that external accountability systems simply don’t get results.  Furthermore, although such systems “tell us that the system is not performing …[they] do not give a clue about how to fix the situation.” (112)  Worst of all, because of the pressure they cause, external accountability systems have sometimes resulted in cheating. 

Instead, school districts need to focus on building internal accountability and then reinforcing it with external accountability.   In support of the emphasis they place on internal accountability, they note that research on school effectiveness and improvement “…suggests that internal accountability must precede external accountability.” (111)  For the authors, internal accountability in a school system means that individuals and groups of educators willingly agree to take personal, professional, and collective responsibility for success for all students.

The authors stress that school and district leaders need to establish the conditions for cultures of internal accountability to thrive.   The good news on this point is that if they “work diligently” on the first 3 elements of the Coherence Framework, then the conditions for internal accountability will inevitably follow. (124)  At the same time that district leaders build cultures in which individuals and groups are accountable to themselves,  they should also “… engage the external policy and accountability system.” (124)  By doing so, they will achieve 2 important purposes: They will both protect the system from distractions and interference and project their goals and beliefs on the larger educational community, with the hope of influencing it for the better.

Better Than Carrots or Sticks

Book Review:  Better Than Carrots or Sticks

by Dominique Smith, Douglas Fisher, & Nancy Frey

In the opening chapter of Better Than Carrots and Sticks, the authors provide a chart that contrasts traditional approaches to discipline to restorative approaches:

Traditional Approaches	Restorative Approaches
Accountability is defined as punishment	Accountability is understanding the impact of the offence and repairing the harm
Schools and rules are violated	People and relationships are violated
Justice is directed at the offender and the victim is ignored	The offender, victim, and school community all have direct roles

The authors also make some important points about rewards and punishments, which are associated with traditional disciplinary approaches.  First, they state that “Rewards and consequences don’t work – or at least, they don’t teach.  They may result in short-term changes, but in reality they promote compliance and little else.” (6)  They also add that research has indicated that rewards can actually undermine motivation.  In way of illustrating the counter-productive effect of traditional consequences, they explain that student suspensions and expulsions merely “undercut [school’s] efforts to boost attendance.” (15)

The focus of Chapter 2 is relationships, which are at the heart of a restorative classroom or school culture.  Teachers should develop an “intentionally inviting” relationship with their students by adopting a growth mindset, being consistently positive, and showing sensitivity to individual student needs and being responsive to those needs. (23)  To build trusting relationships, teachers should begin by making it a priority to know their students’ names.  The authors emphasize that students “expect that those who care about them will remember” their names. (25)  Other relationship-building strategies teachers should use include getting to know students’ interests, attending extracurricular activities, and most importantly, engaging students with quality, meaningful instruction. 

In Chapter 2, the authors argue that social-emotional learning is also an important component in a restorative school climate.  They list the 5 social and emotional competencies identified by the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning:

• Self-awareness -  knowing one’s values, feelings, strengths, and possessing self-confidence;
• Self-management – regulating one’s impulses and emotions;
• Social awareness – being able to understand and empathize with others;
• Relationship skills – being able to build healthy relationships and resolve interpersonal conflicts; and,
• Responsible decision making – making decisions based on ethical standards.

CASEL's 5 Social-Emotional Learning Components

Chapter 3 examines classroom procedures and teacher expectations that contribute to a restorative culture.  Teachers need to realize that their classroom-management strategies and skills will either help or hinder the development of an overall restorative school culture.  As well, when establishing classroom management procedures, teachers should keep in mind the developmental needs of their students.  For instance, the same restrictive measures that are necessary for primary-age students are inappropriate for secondary level students. 

Also included in Chapter 3 is a great discussion on what the authors call the ABCs of behaviour:  “the antecedents to the behavior, the behavior itself, and the consequences of the behavior.” (67)  They emphasize that educators must avoid the temptation to focus solely on the behaviour itself; instead, they need to examine the trigger to the behaviour so that the causes or functions of the behaviour can be addressed effectively through appropriate supports and consequences.  As they write, “Developing the habit of trying to discern the intended function of a behavior can provide teachers with a frame for deciding on how to intervene.” (70)

The chapter on procedures and expectations concludes with some advice for teachers on de-escalating inappropriate behaviour.  The key is to respond “along a continuum based on the severity or intensity of the issue.” (78)  For example, for minor misbehaviour, the teacher can simply make eye contact with the offending student or talk quietly with the student.  Some additional techniques for de-escalation include:

•         Speaking in a soft tone;
•      Acknowledging the student’s feelings; and,
•      Keeping hands where the student can see them.

Several informal peace-building strategies associated with a restorative school culture are introduced in Chapter 4.   The first, the 2 x 10 strategy, is great for building relationships: “spend 2 minutes talking with a student about anything other than school for 10 consecutive days.” (83)  Identity-building statements, whereby the teacher refers to students according to a success-oriented category (ie. scholars or scientists), is effective for helping students build positive self-images and a sense of agency.  Central to restorative practices are affective statements.  These help both teachers and students to express their feelings without negatively labeling other students.  The formula for an affective statement is “I felt [emotion] when [behavior or event] because [reason for the emotion].

Informal classroom circles are an important restorative practice that can be used proactively to prevent conflict.   Some important aspects of effective circles are that everyone is given an equal but strictly voluntary opportunity to speak while all others listen without interruption and the process is not rushed or dominated by the teacher.  When students are very upset, writing is often a good strategy that provides reflective and “cooling-off” time for them.  When lost for how to get started writing, students should be provided with sentence stems such as “I’m angry because ...” and “It hurt me when ...” (101) 

Chapter 5 deals with formal peacemaking strategies.  Before discussing these strategies, the authors share some thoughts on overcoming any resistance by school staff members to restorative approaches.   It is critical to deal with their opposition as these strategies will not be effective unless there is consensus among the adults in the school on the restorative philosophy.  All staff must believe in the importance of restitution and reintegration, and not focus on consequences and marginalization.  

When harm is done in schools, the authors recommend that J. H. Mullet’s three-phase process be followed, in order to repair the relationships, address the harm, and support everyone involved:

·         Phase 1: Unwind – Those who were harmed voice their feelings in private and suggest ways to allow for restitution;

·         Phase 2: Rewind – The offending student is encouraged to reflect on his/her behaviour, develop empathy, and accept responsibility for his/her actions; and,

·         Phase 3: Windup – Observers of the harmful behaviour share their perspectives and support both the victim and the offender.

The formal classroom circle is a strategy that can be used for the Windup stage of the process as everyone in the learning community can have his/her say.   Formal circles should be conducted by trained facilitators (not the teacher), and a “talking piece” should be used to signal that one person speaks at a time and that everyone else listens “with mind and heart”. (118)

When a conflict involves a small group of students, a victim-offender dialogue is an effective strategy.  Before the dialogue occurs, both parties should be given time to unwind, and the facilitator should also meet with each student separately.  Most importantly, both students must be willing to participate in the dialogue.

At the conclusion of Chapter 5, the authors outline some key steps in a re-entry plan for a student returning from having engaged in harmful or inappropriate behaviour.  These include rehearsing the student and identifying a life-line (a fall-back plan if the student feels anxious on returning to class).

In the final chapter, the authors emphasize that all staff in a school must have the right mindsets in order to create a truly restorative culture.  First, they must have a welcoming mindset, which begins with a friendly atmosphere in the front office and includes adults in the school greeting students with smiles and handshakes at the door and being “present in places where students tend to congregate” outside of class. (134) A preventative and “early warning” mindset is also important, with the main goal that teachers identify early students who are “heading for trouble”. (142)